ਮੀਥੇਨ: ਰੀਵਿਜ਼ਨਾਂ ਵਿਚ ਫ਼ਰਕ

ਸਮੱਗਰੀ ਮਿਟਾਈ ਸਮੱਗਰੀ ਜੋੜੀ
ਛੋNo edit summary
ਲਾਈਨ 3:
 
== ਵਿਸ਼ੇਸ਼ਤਾਵਾਂ ==
ਮੀਥੇਨ ਕੁਦਰਤੀ ਗੈਸ ਦਾ ਮੁੱਖ ਭਾਗ ਹੈ ਜੋ ਆਇਤਨ ਦੇ ਅਨੁਸਾਰ 87% ਹੁੰਦੀ ਹੈ। ਸਧਾਰਣ ਹਾਲਤ ਤੇ ਮੀਥੇਨ ਰੰਗਹੀਨ ਗੰਧਹੀਣ ਗੈਸ ਹੈ the smell characteristic of natural gas as used in homes is an artificial safety measure caused by the addition of an [[odorant]], often [[methanethiol]] or [[ethanethiol]]. Methane has a boiling point of −161 °[[Celsius|C]] at a pressure of one [[Atmosphere (unit)|atmosphere]]. As a gas it is [[flammable]] only over a narrow range of concentrations (5–15%) in air. Liquid methane does not burn unless subjected to high pressure (normally 4–5 atmospheres).ਹੈ।
 
=== Potential health effects ===
Methane is not toxic; however, it is highly flammable and may form [[explosive]] mixtures with air. Methane is violently reactive with [[oxidizer]]s, [[halogen]]s, and some halogen-containing compounds. Methane is also an [[asphyxiant gas|asphyxiant]] and may displace [[oxygen]] in an enclosed space. [[Asphyxia]] may result if the oxygen concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by displacement. The concentrations at which flammable or explosive mixtures form are much lower than the concentration at which asphyxiation risk is significant. When structures are built on or near [[landfill]]s, methane off-gas can penetrate the buildings' interiors and expose occupants to significant levels of methane. Some buildings have specially engineered recovery systems below their basements to actively capture such fugitive off-gas and vent it away from the building.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} An example of this type of system is in the [[Dakin Building]], [[Brisbane, California]].
 
=== Reactions of methane ===
Main reactions with methane are: [[combustion]], [[steam reforming]] to [[syngas]], and [[halogenation]]. In general, methane reactions are hard to control. Partial oxidation to [[methanol]], for example, is difficult to achieve; the reaction typically progresses all the way to [[carbon dioxide]] and [[water]].
 
==== Combustion ====
In the [[combustion]] of methane, several steps are involved:
 
Methane is thought to form a [[formaldehyde]] (HCHO or {{chem|H|2|CO}}). The formaldehyde gives a formyl [[Radical (chemistry)|radical]] (HCO), which then forms [[carbon monoxide]] (CO). The process is called oxidative [[pyrolysis]]:
 
:CH<sub>4</sub> + O<sub>2</sub> → CO + H<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O
 
Following oxidative pyrolysis, the {{chem|H|2}} oxidizes, forming {{chem|H|2|O}}, releasing [[heat]]. This occurs very quickly, usually in significantly less than a [[millisecond]].
 
:2 H<sub>2</sub> + O<sub>2</sub> → 2 H<sub>2</sub>O
 
Finally, the CO [[oxidize]]s, forming {{chem|CO|2}} and releasing more heat. This process is generally slower than the other chemical steps, and typically requires a few to several milliseconds to occur.
 
:2 CO + O<sub>2</sub> → 2 CO<sub>2</sub>
 
The result of the above is the following total equation:
 
:CH<sub>4</sub>(g) + 2 O<sub>2</sub>(g) → CO<sub>2</sub>(g) + 2 H<sub>2</sub>O(l) + 891 [[kilo-|k]][[joule|J]]/[[Mole (unit)|mol]]
 
where bracketed "g" stands for gaseous form and bracketed "l" stands for liquid form.
 
==== Hydrogen activation ====
The strength of the [[carbon]]-[[hydrogen]] [[covalent bond]] in methane is among the strongest in all hydrocarbons, and thus its use as a chemical feedstock is limited. Despite the high activation barrier for breaking the C–H bond, {{chem|CH|4}} is still the principal starting material for manufacture of hydrogen in [[steam reforming]]. The search for [[catalyst]]s which can facilitate C–H bond activation in methane and other low [[alkane]]s is an area of research with considerable industrial significance.
 
==== Reactions with halogens ====
Methane reacts with all halogens given appropriate conditions, as follows:
 
:CH<sub>4</sub> + X<sub>2</sub> → CH<sub>3</sub>X + HX
 
where X is a [[halogen]]: [[fluorine]] (F), [[chlorine]] (Cl), [[bromine]] (Br), or [[iodine]] (I). This mechanism for this process is called [[free radical halogenation]].
When X is Cl, this mechanism has the following form:
 
1. Radical generation:
 
:<math>\mathrm{Cl_2 \xrightarrow[\triangle]{UV} 2Cl^\bullet - 239 \; kJ} </math>
 
The needed energy comes from UV radiation or heating,
 
2. Radical exchange:
 
:CH<sub>4</sub> + Cl· → CH<sub>3</sub>· + HCl + 14 kJ
:CH<sub>3</sub>· + Cl<sub>2</sub> → CH<sub>3</sub>Cl + Cl· + 100 kJ
 
3. Radical extermination:
 
:2 Cl· → Cl<sub>2</sub> + 239 kJ
:CH<sub>3</sub>· + Cl· → CH<sub>3</sub>Cl + 339 kJ
:2 CH<sub>3</sub>· → CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>3</sub> + 347 kJ
 
If methane and X<sub>2</sub> are used in equimolar quantities, CH<sub>2</sub>X<sub>2</sub>, CHX<sub>3</sub>, and even CX<sub>4</sub> are formed. Using a large excess of CH<sub>4</sub> reduces the production of CH<sub>2</sub>X<sub>2</sub>, CHX<sub>3</sub>, CX<sub>4</sub>, and thus more CH<sub>3</sub>X is formed.
 
== ਵਰਤੋਂ ==
=== Fuel ===
:''For more on the use of methane as a fuel, see [[natural gas]]''
 
Methane is important for [[electrical generation]] by burning it as a fuel in a [[gas turbine]] or steam [[boiler]]. Compared to other [[fossil fuel|hydrocarbon fuels]], burning methane produces less [[carbon dioxide]] for each unit of heat released. At about 891 kJ/mol, methane's [[heat of combustion]] is lower than any other hydrocarbon but the ratio of the heat of combustion (891 kJ/mol) to the molecular mass (16.0 g/mol) shows that methane, being the simplest hydrocarbon, produces more heat per mass unit (55.7 kJ/g) than other complex hydrocarbons. In many cities, methane is piped into homes for domestic [[heating]] and cooking purposes. In this context it is usually known as [[natural gas]], and is considered to have an energy content of 39 [[megajoule]]s per cubic meter, or 1,000 [[BTU]] per [[standard cubic foot]].
 
Methane in the form of [[compressed natural gas]] is used as a [[vehicle fuel]], and is claimed to be more environmentally friendly than other fossil fuels such as gasoline/petrol and diesel.<ref>{{cite news|quote=Compressed natural gas is touted as the 'cleanest burning' alternative fuel available, since the simplicity of the methane molecule reduces tailpipe emissions of different pollutants by 35 to 97%. Not quite as dramatic is the reduction in net greenhouse-gas emissions, which is about the same as corn-grain ethanol at about a 20% reduction over gasoline|url=http://www.gas2.org/2008/04/29/natural-gas-cars-cng-fuel-almost-free-in-some-parts-of-the-country/|title=Natural Gas Cars: CNG Fuel Almost Free in Some Parts of the Country|date=April 29, 2008|author=Clayton B. Cornell}}</ref>
 
Research is being conducted by [[NASA]] on methane's potential as a [[rocket fuel]].<ref>''Lunar Engines'', [[Aviation Week & Space Technology]], '''171''', 2 (13 July 2009), p. 16: "Aerojet has completed assembly of a 5,500-pound-thrust liquid oxygen/liquid methane rocket engine—a propulsion technology under consideration as the way off the Moon for human explorers"</ref> One advantage of methane is that it is abundant in many parts of the solar system and it could potentially be harvested ''in situ'' (i.e. on the surface of another solar-system body), providing fuel for a return journey.<ref>[http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2007/04may_methaneblast.htm?list123532 Methane Blast], NASA, May 4, 2007</ref>
 
Current methane engines in development produce a thrust of {{convert|7500|lbf|kN|lk=on}}, which is far from the {{convert|7000000|lbf|MN|abbr=on}} needed to launch the [[Space Shuttle]]. Instead, such engines will most likely propel voyages from our moon or send robotic expeditions to other [[planet]]s in the solar system.<ref>{{cite journal|volume=271|issn=0161-7370|issue=3|author=Green, V.|year=2007|title=Hit the Gas: NASA's methane rocket could make long distance space travel possible, on the cheap|publisher=Popular Science magazine|date=September|pages=16–17|url=http://books.google.co.jp/books?id=3AClY8pMg-EC&pg=PA16&lpg=PA16}}</ref>
 
Recently methane emitted from coal mines has been successfully converted to electricity.<ref>[http://www.megtec.com/news_article.php?news_id=42 A Global First: Coal Mine Turns Greenhouse Gas into Green Energy]</ref>
 
=== ਮਾਇਕ ਵਰਤੋਂ ===
Methane is used in industrial chemical processes and may be transported as a refrigerated liquid (liquefied natural gas, or [[LNG]]). While leaks from a refrigerated liquid container are initially heavier than air due to the increased density of the cold gas, the gas at ambient temperature is lighter than air. [[Pipeline transport|Gas pipelines]] distribute large amounts of natural gas, of which methane is the principal component.
 
In the chemical industry, methane is the [[feedstock]] of choice for the production of hydrogen, [[methanol]], [[acetic acid]], and [[acetic anhydride]]. When used to produce any of these chemicals, methane is first converted to [[synthesis gas]], a mixture of [[carbon monoxide]] and hydrogen, by [[steam reforming]]. In this process, methane and [[steam]] react on a [[nickel]] catalyst at high temperatures (700–1100&nbsp;°C).
 
:<math>\mathrm{CH}_4 + \mathrm{H_2O} \xrightarrow[700-1100 \ \mathrm{^oC}]{\mathrm{Ni}} \mathrm{CO + 3H_2} </math>
 
The ratio of carbon monoxide to hydrogen in synthesis gas can then be adjusted via the [[water gas shift reaction]] to the appropriate value for the intended purpose.
 
:CO + H<sub>2</sub>O → CO<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>
 
Less significant methane-derived chemicals include [[acetylene]], prepared by passing methane through an [[electric arc]], and the chloromethanes ([[chloromethane]], [[dichloromethane]], [[chloroform]], and [[carbon tetrachloride]]), produced by reacting methane with [[chlorine]] gas. However, the use of these chemicals is declining. Acetylene is replaced by less costly substitutes, and the use of chloromethanes is diminishing due to health and environmental concerns.
 
== ਮਿਥੇਨ ਦੇ ਸੋਮੇ ==
=== ਕੁਦਰਤੀ ਗੈਸ ਦੇ ਸੋਮੇ ===
The major source of methane is extraction from geological deposits known as [[natural gas fields]]. It is associated with other [[hydrocarbon]] fuels and sometimes accompanied by [[helium]] and [[nitrogen]]. The gas at shallow levels (low pressure) is formed by [[anaerobic organism|anaerobic]] [[decay]] of [[organic matter]] and reworked methane from deep under the Earth's surface. In general, sediments buried deeper and at higher temperatures than those which give [[Petroleum|oil]] generate natural gas. Methane is also produced in considerable quantities from the decaying organic wastes of [[solid waste]] [[landfill]]s.
 
=== ਹੋਰ ਸੋਮੇ ===
Apart from gas fields, an alternative method of obtaining methane is via [[biogas]] generated by the [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] of organic matter including [[manure]], wastewater sludge, municipal solid waste (including landfills), or any other biodegradable feedstock, under anaerobic conditions. Methane hydrates/clathrates (ice-like combinations of methane and water on the sea floor, found in vast quantities) are a potential future source of methane. Cattle belch methane accounts for 16% of the world's annual methane emissions to the atmosphere.<ref>Miller, G. Tyler. ''Sustaining the Earth: An Integrated Approach''. U.S.A.: Thomson Advantage Books, 2007. 160.</ref> The livestock sector in general (primarily cattle, chickens, and pigs) produces 37% of all human-induced methane.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/a0701e/a0701e00.HTM
|title=Livestock’s Long Shadow–Environmental Issues and Options|accessdate=2009-10-27}}</ref> Early research has found a number of medical treatments and dietary adjustments that help slightly limit the production of methane in [[ruminants]].<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/05/0509_020509_belch.html New Zealand Tries to Cap Gaseous Sheep Burps]</ref><ref>[http://www.alternet.org/story/72339/ Research on use of bacteria from the stomach lining of kangaroos (who don't emit methane) to reduce methane in cattle]</ref>
 
Industrially, methane can be created from common atmospheric gases and hydrogen (produced, for example, by [[electrolysis]]) through chemical reactions such as the [[Sabatier process]], [[Fischer-Tropsch process]]. [[Coal bed methane extraction]] is a method for extracting methane from a [[coal]] deposit, while [[enhanced coal bed methane recovery]] is a method of recovering methane from an non-minable coal seam.
 
Scientific experiments have given variable results in determining whether plants are a source of methane emissions.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hamilton JT, McRoberts WC, Keppler F, Kalin RM, Harper DB |title=Chloride methylation by plant pectin: an efficient environmentally significant process |journal=Science (journal) |volume=301 |issue=5630 |pages=206–9 |year=2003 |month=July |pmid=12855805 |doi=10.1126/science.1085036 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12855805}}</ref><ref>[http://sciencenow.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/2009/114/1 "Methane Emissions? Don't Blame Plants"], ScienceNOW, 14 January 2009</ref><ref>[http://environment.newscientist.com/article/mg19626322.900-plants-do-emit-methane-after-all.html Plants do emit methane after all], ''[[New Scientist]]'', 2 December 2007</ref>
 
== ਵਾਤਾਵਰਣੀ ਮਿਥੇਨ ==
{{Main|Atmospheric methane}}
{{Unreferenced|date=January 2010}}
[[ਤਸਵੀਰ:AIRS Methane.png|thumb|2006-2009 Methane concentration in the upper troposphere.]]
Methane is created near the Earth's surface, primarily in soils, rivers/seas and in animal innards. It is carried into the [[stratosphere]] by rising air in the [[tropics]]. Uncontrolled build-up of methane in the atmosphere is naturally checked&nbsp;— although human influence can upset this natural regulation&nbsp;— by methane's reaction with [[hydroxyl radical]]s formed from [[singlet oxygen]] atoms and with water vapor.
 
Methane in the Earth's atmosphere is an important [[greenhouse gas]] with a global warming potential of 25 compared to CO<sub>2</sub> over a 100-year period. This means that a methane emission will have 25 times the impact on temperature of a carbon dioxide emission of the same mass over the following 100 years. Methane has a large effect for a brief period (a net lifetime of 8.4 years in the atmosphere), whereas carbon dioxide has a small effect for a long period (over 100 years). Because of this difference in effect and time period, the global warming potential of methane over a 20 year time period is 72. The Earth's methane concentration has increased by about 150% since 1750, and it accounts for 20% of the total [[radiative forcing]] from all of the long-lived and globally mixed greenhouse gases.<ref name="Technical summary">{{cite web|url=http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/017.htm|title=Technical summary|work=Climate Change 2001|publisher=United Nations Environment Programme}}</ref> Usually, excess methane from landfills and other natural producers of methane is burned so CO<sub>2</sub> is released into the atmosphere instead of methane, because methane is such a more effective greenhouse gas. Recently, methane emitted from coal mines has been successfully utilized to generate electricity.
 
[[Arctic methane release]] from [[permafrost]] and [[clathrates]] is an expected consequence of [[global warming]].<ref name="Methane Releases From Arctic Shelf May Be Much Larger and Faster Than Anticipated">{{cite web|url=http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=116532&org=NSF&from=news|title=Methane Releases From Arctic Shelf May Be Much Larger and Faster Than Anticipated|work=Press Release|publisher=National Science Foundation}}</ref>
 
In prehistoric times, large methane excursions have been linked with dramatic shifts in the Earth's climate, notably during the [[Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum]] and during the [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]], which was the worst ever [[mass extinction]].{{Dubious|February 2010|date=February 2010}}
 
== ਪੁਲਾੜ ਵਿੱਚ ਮਿਥੇਨ ==
Methane has been detected or is believed to exist in several locations of the [[solar system]]. It is believed to have been created by [[Abiotic components|abiotic]] processes, with the possible exception of [[Life on Mars|Mars]].
 
* [[Moon]] – traces are outgassed from the surface<ref>{{cite journal|last = Stern|first = S.A.|title = The Lunar atmosphere: History, status, current problems, and context|journal = Rev. Geophys.|volume = 37|year = 1999|pages = 453–491|doi = 10.1029/1999RG900005}}</ref>
* [[Mars]] – the atmosphere contains 10 ppb methane. In January 2009, NASA scientists announced that they had discovered that the planet often vents methane into the atmosphere in specific areas, leading some to speculate this may be a sign of biological activity going on below the surface.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/01/15/AR2009011502222.html Mars Vents Methane in What Could Be Sign of Life], Washington Post, January 16, 2009</ref>
* [[Jupiter]] – the atmosphere contains about 0.3% methane
* [[Saturn]] – the atmosphere contains about 0.4% methane
** [[Iapetus (moon)|Iapetus]]
** [[Titan (moon)|Titan]] — the atmosphere contains 1.6% methane and thousands of methane lakes have been detected on the surface<ref name=Niemann>
{{cite journal|title= The abundances of constituents of Titan’s atmosphere from the GCMS instrument on the Huygens probe |author= H. B. Niemann, et al. |journal= [[Nature]] |volume=438 |pages=779–784 |year=2005 |doi=10.1038/nature04122|pmid= 16319830|last1= Niemann|first1= HB|last2= Atreya|first2= SK|last3= Bauer|first3= SJ|last4= Carignan|first4= GR|last5= Demick|first5= JE|last6= Frost|first6= RL|last7= Gautier|first7= D|last8= Haberman|first8= JA|last9= Harpold|first9= DN|issue= 7069}}</ref>
** [[Enceladus (moon)|Enceladus]] – the atmosphere contains 1.7% methane<ref name=Waite>Waite, J. H.; ''et al.''; (2006); [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/311/5766/1419 ''Cassini Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer: Enceladus Plume Composition and Structure''], Science, Vol. 311, No. 5766, pp. 1419–1422</ref>
* [[Uranus]] – the atmosphere contains 2.3% methane
** [[Ariel (moon)|Ariel]] – methane is believed to be a constituent of Ariel's surface ice
** [[Miranda (moon)|Miranda]]
** [[Oberon (moon)|Oberon]] – about 20% of Oberon's surface ice is composed of methane-related carbon/nitrogen compounds
** [[Titania (moon)|Titania]] – about 20% of Titania's surface ice is composed of methane-related organic compounds
** [[Umbriel (moon)|Umbriel]] – methane is a constituent of Umbriel's surface ice
* [[Neptune]] – the atmosphere contains 1.6% methane
** [[Triton (moon)|Triton]] – Triton has a tenuous nitrogen atmosphere with small amounts of methane near the surface.<ref name=nature2>{{cite journal
|title = Ultraviolet Spectrometer Observations of Neptune and Triton
|author = A L Broadfoot, S K Bertaux, J E Dessler et al.
|url = http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989Sci...246.1459B
|date = December 15, 1989
|journal = Science
|volume = 246
|pages = 1459–1466
|accessdate = 2008-01-15
|doi = 10.1126/science.246.4936.1459
|pmid = 17756000
|last12 = Krasnopolsky
|first12 = VA
|last13 = Linick
|first13 = S
|last14 = Lunine
|first14 = JI
|last15 = Mcconnell
|first15 = JC
|last16 = Moos
|first16 = HW
|last17 = Sandel
|first17 = BR
|last18 = Schneider
|first18 = NM
|last19 = Shemansky
|first19 = DE
|last20 = Smith
|first20 = GR
|last21 = Strobel
|first21 = DF
|last22 = Yelle
|first22 = RV
|issue = 4936
}}</ref><ref name=grand>{{cite book
|title = The Grand Tour: A Traveler's Guide to the Solar System
|author = Ron Miller
|authorlink = Ron Miller (artist and author)
|coauthors = William K. Hartmann
|year = 2005
|month = May
|pages = 172–73
|publisher = Workman Publishing
|location = Thailand
|edition = 3rd
|isbn = 0-7611-3547-2
}}</ref>
* [[Pluto]] – [[spectroscopic]] analysis of Pluto's surface reveals it to contain traces of methane<ref>{{cite journal|title = Surface Ices and the Atmospheric Composition of Pluto |author = Tobias C. Owen, Ted L. Roush et al.| journal = Science |year=1993|month = 6 August|volume = 261|issue = 5122|pages = 745–748 |doi = 10.1126/science.261.5122.745 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/261/5122/745 |accessdate=2007-03-29|pmid = 17757212}}</ref><ref name=Solstation>{{cite web|title=Pluto|work=SolStation|url=http://www.solstation.com/stars/pluto.htm|year=2006|accessdate=2007-03-28}}</ref>
** [[Charon (moon)|Charon]] – methane is believed to be present on Charon, but it is not completely confirmed<ref>{{cite journal |author=B. Sicardy et al. |title=''Charon’s size and an upper limit on its atmosphere from a stellar occultation'' |journal=Nature |year=2006 |volume=439 |pages=52 |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v439/n7072/abs/nature04351.html|doi = 10.1038/nature04351+ |pmid=16397493 |last1=Sicardy |first1=B |last2=Bellucci |first2=A |last3=Gendron |first3=E |last4=Lacombe |first4=F |last5=Lacour |first5=S |last6=Lecacheux |first6=J |last7=Lellouch |first7=E |last8=Renner |first8=S |last9=Pau |first9=S |issue=7072 |doi_brokendate=2009-10-03}}</ref>
* [[Eris (dwarf planet)|Eris]] – infrared light from the object revealed the presence of methane ice
* [[Comet Halley]]
* [[Comet Hyakutake]] – terrestrial observations found [[ethane]] and methane in the comet<ref name="science">{{cite journal|author=Mumma, M.J.|coauthors = Disanti, M.A., dello Russo, N., Fomenkova, M., Magee-Sauer, K., Kaminski, C.D., and D.X. Xie|title=Detection of Abundant Ethane and Methane, Along with Carbon Monoxide and Water, in Comet C/1996 B2 Hyakutake: Evidence for Interstellar Origin|journal=Science|year=1996|volume=272|pages=1310|bibcode=1996Sci...272.1310M|doi = 10.1126/science.272.5266.1310+|doi_brokendate=2009-10-03}}</ref>
* [[Extrasolar planet]] [[HD 189733b]] – This is the first detection of an organic compound on a planet outside the solar system. Its origin is unknown, since the planet's high temperature (700&nbsp;°C) would normally favor the formation of [[carbon monoxide]] instead.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://space.newscientist.com/article/dn13303-organic-molecules-found-on-alien-world-for-first-time.html|title=Organic molecules found on alien world for first time|accessdate=2008-02-12|author=Stephen Battersby|date=2008-02-11}}</ref>
* [[Interstellar cloud]]s<ref>{{cite journal|author=J. H. Lacy, J. S. Carr, N. J. Evans, II, F. Baas, J. M. Achtermann, J. F. Arens|title=Discovery of interstellar methane&nbsp;— Observations of gaseous and solid CH4 absorption toward young stars in molecular clouds|journal=Astrophysical Journal|year=1991|volume=376|pages=556–560|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991ApJ...376..556L|doi = 10.1086/170304+|pmid=19122700|last1=Rai|first1=VN|last2=Yueh|first2=FY|last3=Singh|first3=JP|issue=31|doi_brokendate=2009-10-03}}</ref>
 
== ਹੋਰ ਵੇਖੋ ==
{{colbegin|3}}
* [[2007 Zasyadko mine disaster]]
* [[Abiogenic petroleum origin]]
* [[Anaerobic digestion]]
* [[Anaerobic respiration]]
* [[Arctic methane release]]
* [[Biogas]]
* [[Coal Oil Point seep field]]
* [[Greenhouse gas]]
* [[Halomethane]], halogenated methane derivatives.
* [[List of alkanes]]
* [[Methanation]]
* [[Methane clathrate]], form of water ice which contains methane.
* [[Methanogen]], [[archaea]] that produce methane as a metabolic by-product.
* [[Methanogenesis]], the formation of methane by [[microbes]].
* [[Methanotroph]], [[bacteria]] that are able to grow using methane as their only source of carbon and energy.
* [[Methyl group]], a functional group similar to methane.
* [[Organic gas]]
* [[Thomas Gold]]
{{colend}}
 
== References ==
{{reflist|2}}