ਅੰਤਰਰਾਸ਼ਟਰੀ ਧੁਨੀ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ ਵਰਣਮਾਲਾ: ਰੀਵਿਜ਼ਨਾਂ ਵਿਚ ਫ਼ਰਕ
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ਛੋ robot Modifying: fa:الفبای آوانگاری بینالمللی; cosmetic changes |
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The '''International Phonetic Alphabet''' ('''IPA''')<ref group=note>
"The acronym 'IPA' strictly refers [...] to the '[[International Phonetic Association]]'. But it is now such a common practice to use the acronym also to refer to the alphabet itself (from the phrase 'International Phonetic Alphabet') that resistance seems pedantic. Context usually serves to disambiguate the two usages." (Laver 1994:561)
</ref> is a system of [[phonetic transcription|phonetic notation]] based primarily on the [[Latin alphabet]], devised by the [[International Phonetic Association]] as a standardized representation of the sounds of spoken language.<ref name="IPA 1999">International Phonetic Association (IPA), ''Handbook''.</ref> The IPA is used by [[foreign language]] students and teachers, [[linguistics|linguists]], [[speech and language pathology|speech pathologists and therapists]], [[singer]]s, [[actor]]s, [[lexicography|lexicographers]], [[conlang
The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are distinctive in [[spoken language]]: [[phoneme]]s, [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]], and the separation of [[word]]s and [[syllable]]s.<ref name="IPA 1999" /> To represent additional qualities of speech such as tooth gnashing, [[lisp]]ing, and sounds made with a [[Cleft lip and palate|cleft palate]], an extended set of symbols called the [[Extensions to the IPA]] is used.<ref name="world" />
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Occasionally symbols are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of 2008, there are 107 distinct letters, 52 [[diacritic]]s, and four [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosody]] marks in the IPA proper.
== History ==
{{Main|History of the IPA}}
In 1886, a group of [[France|French]] and [[United Kingdom|British]] language teachers, led by the French linguist [[Paul Passy]], formed what would come to be known (from 1897 onwards) as the [[International Phonetic Association]] (in French, ''l’[[:fr:Association phonétique internationale|Association phonétique internationale]]'').<ref name="IPA194-196">International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp. 194–196</ref> The original alphabet was based on a [[spelling reform]] for English known as the [[Romic alphabet]], but in order to make it usable for other languages, the values of the symbols were allowed to vary from language to language.<ref>"Originally, the aim was to make available a set of phonetic symbols which would be given ''different'' articulatory values, if necessary, in different languages." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp. 195–196)</ref> For example, the sound {{IPA|[ʃ]}} (the ''sh'' in ''shoe'') was originally represented with the letter ‹c› in English, but with the letter ‹x› in French.<ref name="IPA194-196"/> However, in 1888, the alphabet was revised so as to be uniform across languages, thus providing the base for all future revisions.<ref name="IPA194-196"/><ref>{{cite journal |last=Passy |first=Paul |year=1888 |title=Our revised alphabet |journal=The Phonetic Teacher |pages=57–60}}</ref>
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Extensions of the alphabet are relatively recent; "[[Extensions to the IPA]]" was created in 1990 <!-- by whom? --> and officially adopted by the [[International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association]] in 1994.<ref>International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p. 186</ref>
== Description ==
[[
{{For|a guide to pronouncing IPA transcriptions of English words|IPA chart for English dialects}}
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</ref>
=== Letterforms ===
The symbols chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the [[Latin alphabet]].<ref group=note>
"The non-roman letters of the International Phonetic Alphabet have been designed as far as possible to harmonize well with the roman letters. The Association does not recognise makeshift letters; It recognises only letters which have been carefully cut so as to be in harmony with the other letters." (IPA 1949)
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Although the IPA diacritics are fully [[Featural alphabet|featural]], there is little systemicity in the letter forms. A [[retroflex consonant|retroflex]] articulation is consistently indicated with a right-swinging tail, as in {{IPA|‹ɖ ʂ ɳ›}}, and [[glottalic ingressive|implosion]] by a top hook, {{IPA|‹ɓ ɗ ɠ›}}, but other pseudo-featural elements are due to haphazard derivation and coincidence. For example, all nasal consonants but uvular {{IPA|‹ɴ›}} are based on the form {{IPA|‹n›}}: {{IPA|‹m ɱ n ɲ ɳ ŋ›}}. However, the similarity between {{IPA|‹m›}} and {{IPA|‹n›}} is a historical accident, {{IPA|‹ɲ›}} and {{IPA|‹ŋ›}} are derived from [[Typographic ligature|ligature]]s of ''gn'' and ''ng,'' and {{IPA|‹ɱ›}} is an ''ad hoc'' imitation of {{IPA|‹ŋ›}}. In none of these is the form consistent with other letters that share these places of articulation.{{OR|date=October 2008}}-->
=== Symbols and sounds ===
The International Phonetic Alphabet is based on the Latin alphabet, using as few non-Latin forms as possible.<ref name=IPA194-196/> The Association created the IPA so that the sound values of most [[consonant]]s taken from the Latin alphabet would correspond to “international usage”.<ref name=IPA194-196/> Hence, the letters {{IPA|‹b›}}, {{IPA|‹d›}}, {{IPA|‹f›}}, (hard) {{IPA|‹ɡ›}}, (non-silent) {{IPA|‹h›}}, (unaspirated) {{IPA|‹k›}}, {{IPA|‹l›}}, {{IPA|‹m›}}, {{IPA|‹n›}}, (unaspirated) {{IPA|‹p›}}, (voiceless) {{IPA|‹s›}}, (unaspirated) {{IPA|‹t›}}, {{IPA|‹v›}}, {{IPA|‹w›}}, and {{IPA|‹z›}} have the values used in English; and the [[vowel]]s from the Latin alphabet ({{IPA|‹a›}}, {{IPA|‹e›}}, {{IPA|‹i›}}, {{IPA|‹o›}}, {{IPA|‹u›}}) correspond to the sound values of Latin: {{IPA|[i]}} is like the vowel in ''mach'''i'''ne'', {{IPA|[u]}} is as in ''r'''u'''le'', etc. Other letters may differ from English, but are used with these values in other European languages, such as {{IPA|‹j›}}, {{IPA|‹r›}}, and {{IPA|‹y›}}.
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The sound values of modified Latin letters can often be derived from those of the original letters.<ref>"The new letters should be suggestive of the sounds they represent, by their resemblance to the old ones." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p. 196)</ref> For example, letters with a rightward-facing hook at the bottom represent [[retroflex consonant]]s; and small capital letters usually represent [[uvular consonant]]s. Apart from the fact that certain kinds of modification to the shape of a letter generally correspond to certain kinds of modification to the sound represented, there is no way to deduce the sound represented by a symbol from the shape of the symbol (unlike, for example, in [[Visible Speech]]).
Beyond the letters themselves, there are a variety of secondary symbols which aid in transcription. [[Diacritic|Diacritic
=== Brackets and phonemes ===
There are two principal types of [[bracket]]s used to set off IPA transcriptions:
* [square brackets] are used for [[phonetic]] details of the pronunciation, possibly including details that may not be used for distinguishing words in the language being transcribed, but which the author nonetheless wishes to document.
* /[[slash (punctuation)|slashes]]/ are used to mark off [[phoneme]]s, all of which are distinctive in the language, without any extraneous detail.
For example, while the /p/ sounds of ''pin'' and ''spin'' are pronounced slightly differently in English (and this difference would be meaningful in some languages), it is not meaningful in English. Thus ''phonemically'' the words are {{IPA|/pɪn/}} and {{IPA|/spɪn/}}, with the same /p/ phoneme. However, to capture the difference between them (the [[allophone]]s of /p/), they can be transcribed phonetically as {{IPA|[pʰɪn]}} and {{IPA|[spɪn]}}.
Two other conventions are less commonly seen:
* Double slashes (//), <nowiki>pipes (|)</nowiki>, <nowiki>double pipes (||)</nowiki>, or braces ({ }) around a word may be used to denote its underlying structure, more abstract even than that of phonemes. See [[morphophonology]] for examples.
* Angle brackets (‹ ›) are used to clarify that the letters represent the original orthography of the language, or sometimes an exact transliteration of a non-Latin script, not the IPA; or, within the IPA, that the letters themselves are indicated, not the sound values that they carry. For example, {{IPA|‹pin›}} and {{IPA|‹spin›}} would be seen for those words, which do not contain the ''ee'' sound {{IPA|[i]}} of the IPA letter {{IPA|‹i›}}. Italics are perhaps more commonly used for this purpose when full words are being written (as ''pin, spin'' above), but may not be considered sufficiently clear for individual letters and digraphs. {{Unicode|⟨ ⟩}} (U+27E8, U+29E9) are probably ideal for angle brackets, but they are not yet supported by many fonts as of 2009. Angle quotation marks ‹ › (U+2039, U+203A) therefore may be used instead, as in the above examples. Less-than and greater-than signs < > (U+003C, U+003E) are also used in substitution for angle brackets.
== Usage ==
{{further|[[Phonetic transcription]]}}
[[
Although the IPA offers over a hundred symbols for transcribing speech, it is not necessary to use all relevant symbols at the same time; it is possible to transcribe speech with various levels of precision. A precise phonetic transcription, in which sounds are described in a great deal of detail, is known as a ''narrow transcription''. A coarser transcription which ignores some of this detail is called a ''broad transcription.'' Both are relative terms, and both are generally enclosed in square brackets.<ref name="IPA_1999"/> Broad phonetic transcriptions may restrict themselves to easily heard details, or only to details that are relevant to the discussion at hand, and may differ little if at all from phonemic transcriptions, but they make no theoretical claim that all the distinctions transcribed are necessarily meaningful in the language.
[[
For example, the English word ''little'' may be transcribed broadly using the IPA as {{IPA|[ˈlɪtəl]}}, and this broad (imprecise) transcription is an accurate (approximately correct) description of many pronunciations. A more narrow transcription may focus on individual or dialectical details: {{IPA|[ˈlɪɾɫ]}} in [[General American]], {{IPA|[ˈlɪʔo]}} in [[Cockney]], or {{IPA|[ˈlɪːɫ]}} in Southern US English.
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It is customary to use simpler letters, without a lot of diacritics, in phonemic transcriptions. The choice of IPA letters may reflect the theoretical claims of the author, or merely be a convenience for typesetting. For instance, in English, either the vowel of ''pick'' or the vowel of ''peak'' may be transcribed as {{IPA|/i/}} (for the pairs {{IPA|/pik, piːk/}} or {{IPA|/pɪk, pik/}}), and neither is identical to the vowel of the French word ''pique'' which is also generally transcribed {{IPA|/i/}}. That is, letters between slashes do not have absolute values, something true of broader phonetic approximations as well. A narrow transcription may, however, be used to distinguish them: {{IPA|[pʰɪk], [pʰiːk], [pik]}}.
=== Linguists ===
Although IPA is popular for transcription by linguists, it is also common to use [[Americanist phonetic notation]] or IPA together with some [[Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet|nonstandard symbols]], for reasons including reducing the error rate on reading handwritten transcriptions or avoiding perceived awkwardness of IPA in some situations. The exact practice may vary somewhat between languages and even individual researchers, so authors are generally encouraged to include a chart or other explanation of their choices.<ref name="thomason">{{cite web |url=http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/005287.html |title=Why I Don't Love the International Phonetic Alphabet |author=Sally Thomason |date=January 2, 2008 |work=Language Log }}</ref>
=== Language study ===
{{Expand section|date=November 2009}}
Some language study programs use the IPA to teach pronunciation. For example, in Russia (and earlier in the Soviet Union) textbooks for children<ref>For example, the English school textbooks by I.N.Vereshagina, K.A. Bondarenko and T.A. Pritykina.</ref> and adults<ref>For example, "Le Français à la portée de tous" by K.K. Parchevsky and E.B. Roisenblit (1995) and "English Through Eye and Ear" by L.V. Bankevich (1975).</ref> for studying English and French consistently used the IPA.
=== Dictionaries ===
==== English ====
Many British dictionaries, among which are [[Monolingual learner's dictionary|learner's dictionaries]] such as the [[Advanced learner's dictionary|Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary]] and the [[Advanced learner's dictionary|Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary]], now use [[Pronunciation respelling for English#International Phonetic Alphabet|the International Phonetic Alphabet]] to represent the pronunciation of words.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.cambridge.org/help/phonetics.htm |title=Phonetics |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge Dictionaries Online|accessdate=2007-03-11}}</ref> However, most American (and some British) volumes use one of a variety of [[Pronunciation respelling for English|pronunciation respelling]] systems, intended to be more comfortable for readers of English. For example, the respelling systems in many American dictionaries (such as [[Merriam–Webster]]) use ‹y› for IPA {{IPA|[j]}} and ‹sh› for IPA {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, reflecting common representations of those sounds in written English,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mw1.merriam-webster.com/pronsymbols.html |title=Merriam-Webster Online Pronunciation Symbols |accessdate=2007-06-04 |work=}}<br />{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Agnes|title=Webster's New World College Dictionary|year=1999|publisher=Macmillan USA|location=New York, NY|isbn=0-02-863119-6|pages=xxiii|nopp=true}}<br />''[[Pronunciation respelling for English]]'' has detailed comparisons.</ref> using only letters of the English [[Latin alphabet|Roman alphabet]] and variations of them. (In IPA, {{IPA|[y]}} represents the sound of the French ‹u› (as in ''tu''), and {{IPA|[sh]}} represents the pair of sounds in ''gra'''ssh'''opper''.)
One of the benefits of using an alternative to the IPA is the ability to use a single symbol for a sound pronounced differently in different dialects. For example, [[The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language]] uses ‹ŏ› for the vowel in ''cot'' [http://www.bartleby.com/61/46/C0674600.html (kŏt)] but ‹ô› for the one in ''caught'' [http://www.bartleby.com/61/14/C0171400.html (kôt)].<ref>{{cite web|title=Pronunciation Key|work=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/12.html |year=2000 |publisher=Bartleby.com|accessdate=2006-09-19 }}</ref> Some American speakers [[phonological history of English low back vowels|pronounce these the same way]] (for example, like IPA {{IPA|[ɒ]}} in the [[Boston accent|Boston dialect]]); for those speakers who maintain the distinction, depending on the accent, the vowel in ''cot'' may vary from {{IPA|[ɑ]}} to {{IPA|[a]}}, while the vowel in ''caught'' may vary from {{IPA|[ɔ]}} to {{IPA|[ɑ]}}, or may even be a diphthong. Using one symbol for the vowel in ''cot'' (instead of having different symbols for different pronunciations of the ''o'') enables the dictionary to provide meaningful pronunciations for speakers of most dialects of English.
==== Other languages ====
The IPA is also not universal among dictionaries in languages other than English. Monolingual dictionaries of languages with generally [[phonemic orthography|phonemic orthographies]] generally don't bother with indicating the pronunciation of most words, and tend to use respelling systems for words with unexpected pronunciations. Dictionaries produced in [[Israel]] use the IPA rarely and sometimes use the [[Hebrew alphabet]] for transcription of foreign words. Monolingual Hebrew dictionaries use pronunciation respelling for words with unusual spelling; for example, [[Even-Shoshan Dictionary]] respells תָּכְנִית as תּוֹכְנִית because this word uses [[kamatz katan]]. Bilingual dictionaries that translate from foreign languages into [[Russian language|Russian]] usually employ the IPA, but monolingual Russian dictionaries occasionally use pronunciation respelling for foreign words; for example, [[Ozhegov's dictionary]] adds ''нэ́'' in brackets for the [[French language|French]] word ''пенсне'' ([[Pince-nez]]) to indicate that the ''[[е]]'' doesn't [[Iotation|iotate]] the ''[[н]]''.
The IPA is more common in bilingual dictionaries, but there are exceptions here too. Mass-market bilingual Czech dictionaries, for instance, tend to use the IPA only for sounds not found in the [[Czech language]].<ref>{{cs icon}} {{cite book |last=Fronek|first=J.|title=Velký anglicko-český slovník|year=2006|publisher=Leda|location=Praha|language=Czech|isbn=80-7335-022-X|quote=In accordance with long-established Czech lexicographical tradition, a modified version of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is adopted in which letters of the Czech alphabet are employed.}}</ref>
=== Standard orthographies and capital variants ===
{{See also|Latin characters in Unicode}}
IPA symbols have been incorporated into the standard orthographies of various languages, notably in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] but in other regions as well, for example: [[Hausa language|Hausa]], [[Fula language|Fula]], [[Akan language|Akan]], [[Gbe languages]], [[Manding languages]], and [[Lingala language|Lingala]].
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The above-mentioned and other capital forms are supported by [[Unicode]], but appear in Latin ranges other than the IPA extensions.
=== Classical singing ===
IPA has widespread use among classical singers for preparation, especially among English-speaking singers who rarely sing in their native language. Opera librettos are authoritatively transcribed in IPA, such as [[Nico Castel]]'s volumes<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.castelopera.com/libretti.htm | title=Nico Castel's Complete Libretti Series | publisher=Castel Opera Arts | accessdate=2008-09-29}}</ref> and Timothy Cheek's book ''Singing in Czech''.<ref>{{cite book | url=http://scarecrowpress.com/Catalog/SingleBook.shtml?command=Search&db=%5EDB/CATALOG.db&eqSKUdata=0810840030 | last=Cheek | first=Timothy | title=Singing in Czech | year=2001 | pages=392 | isbn=0-8108-4003-0 ISBN 978-0-8108-4003-4 | publisher=The Scarecrow Press}}</ref> Opera singers' ability to read IPA was recently used by the Visual Thesaurus, which employed several opera singers "to make recordings for the 150,000 words and phrases in VT's lexical database. ...for their vocal stamina, attention to the details of enunciation, and most of all, knowledge of IPA."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=155 | title=Operatic IPA and the Visual Thesaurus | last=Zimmer | first=Benjamin | authorlink=Benjamin Zimmer | work=[[Language Log]] | publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania]] | accessdate=2009-09-29 | date=2008-05-14}}</ref>
== Letters ==
The International Phonetic Alphabet divides its letter symbols into three categories: [[Egressive|pulmonic]] consonants, non-pulmonic consonants, and vowels.<ref>"Segments can usefully be divided into two major categories, consonants and vowels." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p. 3)</ref><ref>International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p. 6.</ref> Each character is assigned a number, to prevent confusion between similar letters (such as {{IPA|ɵ}} and {{IPA|θ}}), for example in printing manuscripts. Different categories of sounds are assigned different ranges of numbers.
=== Pulmonic consonants ===
{{Main|Consonant}}
A [[Egressive|pulmonic]] consonant is a consonant made by obstructing the [[glottis]] (the space between the vocal cords) or [[Mouth|oral cavity]] (the mouth) and either simultaneously or subsequently letting out air from the lungs. Pulmonic consonants make up the majority of consonants in the IPA, as well as in human language. All consonants in the English language fall into this category.<ref>{{cite book|last=Fromkin|first=Victoria|authorlink=Victoria Fromkin|coauthors=Rodman, Robert|title=An Introduction to Language|origyear=1974|year=1998|publisher=Harcourt Brace College Publishers|location=Fort Worth, TX |edition= 6th|isbn=0-03-018682-X}}</ref>
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{| class="IPA wikitable" style="text-align: center"
! colspan=17 | [[
|-
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"
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! colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width: 4em;" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 3em"
! rowspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | [[Bilabial consonant|Bi
! rowspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | [[Labiodental consonant|La
! rowspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | [[Dental consonant|Den
! rowspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | [[Alveolar consonant|Al
! rowspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post
! rowspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | [[Retroflex consonant|Re
! rowspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | [[Palatal consonant|Pa
! rowspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | [[Velar consonant|Ve
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | [[Uvular consonant|Uvu
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | [[Pharyngeal consonant|Pha
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | [[Epiglottal consonant|Epi
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 3em"
| style="font-size: 90%;" | [[Manner of articulation]] ↓
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|
| colspan="3" | [[alveolar trill|{{IPA|r}}]]
| [[retroflex trill|retroflex trill]]
|
| style="background:#ccc" |
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;Notes
* Asterisks (*) next to symbols mark reported sounds that do not (yet) have official IPA symbols. See the respective articles for ''ad hoc'' symbols found in the literature.
* Daggers (†) mark IPA symbols that have recently been added to [[Unicode]]. As of Unicode 5.1.0, this is the case of the [[labiodental flap]], symbolized by a ''v'' with a right-hook: [[
* In rows where some symbols appear in pairs (the ''[[obstruent]]s''), the symbol to the right represents a [[voice (phonetics)|voiced consonant]] (except [[breathy voice|breathy-voiced]] {{IPA|[ɦ]}}). However, {{IPA|[ʔ]}} cannot be voiced, and the voicing of {{IPA|[ʡ]}} is ambiguous.<ref>Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996, ''Sounds of the World's Languages,'' §2.1.</ref> In the other rows (the ''[[sonorant]]s''), the single symbol represents a voiced consonant.
* Although there is a single symbol for the coronal places of articulation for all consonants but fricatives, when dealing with a particular language, the symbols may be treated as specifically dental, alveolar, or post-alveolar, as appropriate for that language, without diacritics.
* Shaded areas indicate articulations judged to be impossible.
* The symbols {{IPA|[ʁ, ʕ, ʢ]}} represent either voiced fricatives or approximants.
* In many languages, such as English, {{IPA|[h]}} and {{IPA|[ɦ]}} are not actually glottal, fricatives, or approximants. Rather, they are bare [[phonation]].<ref>Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996, ''Sounds of the World's Languages,'' §9.3.</ref>
* It is primarily the shape of the tongue rather than its position that distinguishes the fricatives {{IPA|[ʃ ʒ]}}, {{IPA|[ɕ ʑ]}}, and {{IPA|[ʂ ʐ]}}.
<!-- Contested on peer review...
*The [[labiodental nasal]] {{IPA|[ɱ]}} is not known to exist as a [[phoneme]] in any language.
-->
==== Coarticulation ====
[[Co-articulated consonant|Coarticulated consonants]] are sounds that involve two simultaneous [[Place of articulation|places of articulation]] (are pronounced using two parts of the [[vocal tract]]). In English, the [w] in "went" is a coarticulated consonant, because it is pronounced by rounding the lips and raising the back of the tongue. Other languages, such as [[French language|French]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]], have different coarticulated consonants.
{| class="IPA wikitable"
! colspan=2 | [[
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | [[voiceless labio-velar approximant|ʍ]]
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;Note
* {{IPA|[ɧ]}} is described as a "simultaneous {{IPA|[ʃ]}} and {{IPA|[x]}}".<ref>{{cite book |last=Ladefoged |first=Peter |coauthors=[[Ian Maddieson]]|year=1996 |title=The sounds of the world's languages |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell|pages=329–330|isbn=0-631-19815-6}}</ref> However, this analysis is disputed. (See [[voiceless palatal-velar fricative]] for discussion.)
==== Affricates and double articulation ====
[[Affricate consonant|
{| class="IPA wikitable"
! colspan=3 | [[
|-
! Tie bar
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* On browsers that use ''[[Arial Unicode MS]]'' to display IPA characters, the following incorrectly formed sequences may look better due to a bug in that font: {{IPA|ts͡, tʃ͡, tɕ͡, dz͡, dʒ͡, dʑ͡, tɬ͡, kp͡, ɡb͡, ŋm͡}}.
=== Non-pulmonic consonants ===
Non-pulmonic consonants are sounds whose airflow is not dependent on the lungs. These include clicks (found in the [[Khoisan languages]] of Africa), [[Implosive consonant|implosives]] (found in languages such as [[Swahili language|Swahili]]) and [[ejective consonant|ejectives]] (found in many [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Amerindian]] and [[Languages of the Caucasus|Caucasian languages]]).
{| class="IPA wikitable"
! colspan=6 | [[
|- valign=top
! colspan="2" | [[Click consonant|Clicks]]
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;Notes
* Clicks are double articulated and have traditionally been described as having a forward 'release' and a rear 'accompaniment', with the click letters representing the release. Therefore all clicks would require two letters for proper notation: {{IPA|‹k͡ǂ, ɡ͡ǂ, ŋ͡ǂ, q͡ǂ, ɢ͡ǂ, ɴ͡ǂ›}} ''etc.'', or {{IPA|‹ǂ͡k, ǂ͡ɡ, ǂ͡ŋ, ǂ͡q, ǂ͡ɢ, ǂ͡ɴ›}}. When the dorsal articulation is omitted, a {{IPA|[k]}} may usually be assumed. However, recent research disputes the concept of 'accompaniment'.<ref>Amanda L. Miller ''et al.'', [http://ling.cornell.edu/plab/amanda/amiller_jipa.pdf "Differences in airstream and posterior place of articulation among Nǀuu lingual stops"]. Submitted to the ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association''. Retrieved 2007-05-27.</ref> In these approaches, the click letter represents both articulations, there is no velar-uvular distinction, and the accompanying letter represents the manner of the click: {{IPA|‹ǂ, <sup>ɡ</sup>ǂ, <sup>ŋ</sup>ǂ›}} ''etc.''
* Symbols for the [[voiceless]] implosives {{IPA|‹ƥ, ƭ, ƈ, ƙ, ʠ›}} are no longer supported by the IPA, though they remain in Unicode. Instead, the IPA typically uses the voiced equivalent with a voiceless diacritic: {{IPA|‹ɓ̥, ʛ̥›}}, ''etc''.
* Although not confirmed as contrastive in any language, and therefore not explicitly recognized by the IPA, a letter for the [[Voiced retroflex implosive|retroflex implosive]], <span title="U+1D91">{{Unicode|‹ᶑ›}}</span>, is supported in the Unicode Phonetic Extensions Supplement, added in version 4.1 of the Unicode Standard, or can be created as a composite {{IPA|‹ɗ̢›}}.
* The ejective symbol often stands in for a superscript glottal stop in [[Glottalic consonant|glottalized]] but pulmonic [[sonorant]]s, such as {{IPA|[mˀ], [lˀ], [wˀ], [aˀ]}}. These may also be transcribed as creaky {{IPA|[m̰], [l̰], [w̰], [a̰]}}.
=== Vowels ===
{{Main|Vowel}}
[[
[[
The IPA defines a vowel as a sound which occurs at a syllable center.<ref>International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p. 10.</ref> Below is a chart depicting the vowels of the IPA. The IPA maps the vowels according to the position of the tongue.
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In places where vowels are paired, the right represents a [[Roundedness|rounded vowel]] (in which the lips are rounded) while the left is its unrounded counterpart.
* [[
{{CSS IPA vowel chart}}
;Notes
* {{IPA|‹a›}} officially represents a front vowel, but there is little distinction between front and central open vowels, and {{IPA|‹a›}} is frequently used for an open central vowel.<ref name="thomason" /> However, if disambiguation is required, the [[Relative articulation#Retracted|retraction diacritic]] or the [[Relative articulation#Centralized vowels|centralized diacritic]] may be added to indicate an open central vowel, as in {{IPA|‹a̠›}} or {{IPA|‹ä›}}.
== Diacritics ==
[[Diacritic]]s are small markings which are placed around the IPA letter in order to show a certain alteration or more specific description in the letter's pronunciation.<ref name=IPA15>International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp. 14–15.</ref> Sub-diacritics (markings normally placed below a letter or symbol) may be placed above a symbol having a descender (informally called a tail), e.g. {{IPA|ŋ̊, ȷ̈}}.<ref name=IPA15 />
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{|class="IPA wikitable"
! colspan=6|[[
|-
! colspan=6|Syllabicity diacritics
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|style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|̝}}
|style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̝ ɹ̝}}
|colspan=4 rowspan=2|[[Relative articulation#
|-
|style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|˔}}
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|style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|̞}}
|style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̞ β̞}}
|colspan=4 rowspan=2|[[Relative articulation#
|-
|style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|˕}}
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|}
== Suprasegmentals ==
These symbols describe the features of a language above the level of individual consonants and vowels, such as [[prosody (linguistics)|prosody]], [[tone (linguistics)|tone]], [[length (phonetics)|length]], and [[stress (linguistics)|stress]], which often operate on syllables, words, or [[phrase]]s: that is, elements such as the intensity, pitch, and gemination of the sounds of a language, as well as the [[rhythm]] and [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] of speech.<ref name="Handbook13">International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p. 13.</ref> Although most of these symbols indicate distinctions that are phonemic at the word level, symbols also exist for intonation on a level [[Phonological hierarchy|greater than that of the word]].<ref name="Handbook13" />
{| class="IPA wikitable"
! colspan=5|[[
|-
! colspan=5|Length, stress, and rhythm
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|-
| colspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|aː kː}}
| [[Length (phonetics)|Long]] ([[Vowel length|long vowel]] or<br />[[gemination|geminate consonant]])
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|aˑ}}
| Half-long
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Finer distinctions of tone may be indicated by combining the tone diacritics and letters shown here, though not many fonts support this. The primary examples are high (mid) rising {{IPA|ɔ᷄, ɔ˧˥}}; low rising {{IPA|ɔ᷅, ɔ˩˧}}; high falling {{IPA|ɔ᷇, ɔ˥˧}}; low (mid) falling {{IPA|ɔ᷆, ɔ˧˩}}; peaking {{IPA|ɔ᷈, ɔ˧˥˧}}; and dipping {{IPA|ɔ᷉, ɔ˧˩˧}}. A work-around for diacritics sometimes seen when a language has more than one rising or falling tone, and the author does not wish to completely abandon the IPA, is to restrict generic rising {{IPA|ɔ̌}} and falling {{IPA|ɔ̂}} for the higher-pitched of the rising and falling tones, {{IPA|ɔ˥˧}} and {{IPA|ɔ˧˥}}, and to use the non-standard subscript diacritics {{IPA|ɔ̗}} and {{IPA|ɔ̖}} for the lower-pitched rising and falling tones, {{IPA|ɔ˩˧}} and {{IPA|ɔ˧˩}}. When a language has four level tones, the two mid tones are sometimes transcribed as high-mid {{IPA|ɔ̍}} (non-standard) and low-mid {{IPA|ɔ̄}}.
== Obsolete symbols and nonstandard symbols ==
{{Main|Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet}}
The IPA inherited alternate symbols from various traditions, but eventually settled on one for each sound. The other symbols are now considered obsolete. An example is {{IPA|‹ɷ›}} which has been standardised to {{IPA|‹ʊ›}}. Several symbols indicating secondary articulation have been dropped altogether, with the idea that such things should be indicated with diacritics: {{IPA|‹ƍ›}} for {{IPA|‹zʷ›}} is one. In addition, the rare voiceless implosive series {{IPA|‹ƥ ƭ ƈ ƙ ʠ›}} has been dropped; they are now written {{IPA|‹ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ʄ̊ ɠ̊ ʛ̥›}} or {{IPA|‹pʼ↓ tʼ↓ cʼ↓ kʼ↓ qʼ↓›}} respectively. A rejected competing proposal for transcribing clicks, {{IPA|‹ʇ, ʗ, ʖ›}}, is still sometimes seen, as the official letters {{IPA|‹ǀ, ǃ, ǁ›}} may cause problems with legibility, especially when used with brackets, the letter {{IPA|‹l›}}, or the [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosodic]] marks {{IPA|<nowiki>‹|, ‖›</nowiki>}}.<ref>[http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2009/09/click-symbols.html John Wells's phonetic blog]</ref>
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There are also unsupported or ''[[ad hoc]]'' symbols from local traditions that find their way into publications that otherwise use the standard IPA. This is especially common with affricates such as the "[[barred lambda]]" {{IPA|‹ƛ›}} for {{IPA|[t͜ɬ]}}.
=== IPA extensions ===
{{Main|Extensions to the IPA}}
Extensions to the IPA, also often abbreviated as extIPA, is a group of symbols whose original purpose was to accurately transcribe [[Speech disorder|disordered speech]]. At the [[IPA Kiel Convention]] in 1989, a group of linguists drew up the initial set of symbols for the Extended IPA.<ref>"At the 1989 Kiel Convention of the IPA, a sub-group was established to draw up recommendations for the transcription of disordered speech." ("Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart" ''in'' International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp. 186.)</ref> Extensions to the IPA were first published in 1990, and modified over the next few years before its official publication in the ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'' in 1994 allowed it to be officially adopted by the [[International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association|ICPLA]].<ref>"Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart" ''in'' International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp. 186–187.</ref> While its original purpose was to transcribe disordered speech, linguists have used it to designate a number of unique sounds within standard communication, such as hushing, gnashing teeth, and smacking lips. The Extensions to the IPA have also been used to record certain peculiarities in an individual's voice, such as nasalized voicing.<ref name="world" />
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Aside from the extIPA, another set of symbols is used for voice quality (VoQS), such as whispering.
== Segments that have no symbols ==
The remaining blank cells on the IPA chart can be filled without too much difficulty if the need arises. Some ''[[ad hoc]]'' symbols have appeared in the literature, for example for the retroflex lateral flap and the voiceless lateral fricative series, the epiglottal trill, and the labiodental plosives. (See the grey symbols in the PDF chart.) Diacritics can supply much of the remainder, which would indeed be appropriate if the sounds were allophones.<ref>"Diacritics may also be employed to create symbols for phonemes, thus reducing the need to create new letter shapes." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 27)</ref>
=== Consonants without letters ===
Representations of consonant sounds outside of the core set are created by adding diacritics to symbols for similar sound values. The Spanish bilabial and dental approximants are commonly written as lowered fricatives, {{IPA|[β̞]}} and {{IPA|[ð̞]}} respectively. Similarly, voiced lateral fricatives would be written as raised lateral approximants, {{IPA|[ɭ˔ ʎ̝ ʟ̝]}}. A few languages such as [[Banda languages|Banda]] have a bilabial flap as the preferred allophone of what is elsewhere a labiodental flap. It has been suggested that this be written with the labiodental flap symbol and the advanced diacritic, {{IPA|[ѵ̟]}}.<ref>Olson, Kenneth S.; & Hajek, John. (1999). The phonetic status of the labial flap. ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'', ''29'' (2), pp. 101–114.</ref>
Similarly, a labiodental trill would be written {{IPA|[ʙ̪]}} (bilabial trill and the dental sign), and labiodental stops {{IPA|[p̪ b̪]}} rather than with the ''ad hoc'' symbols sometimes found in the literature. Other taps can be written as extra-short plosives or laterals, e.g. {{IPA|[ɟ̆ ɢ̆/ʀ̆ ʟ̆]}}, though in some cases the diacritic would need to be written below the letter. A retroflex trill can be written as a retracted {{IPA|[r̠]}}, just as retroflex fricatives sometimes are. The remaining consonants, the uvular laterals ({{IPA|ʟ̠}} ''etc.'') and the palatal trill, while not strictly impossible, are very difficult to pronounce and are unlikely to occur even as allophones in the world's languages.
=== Vowels without letters ===
The vowels are similarly manageable by using diacritics for raising, lowering, fronting, backing, centering, and mid-centering.<ref>"The diacrtics...can be used to modify the lip or tongue position implied by a vowel symbol." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 16)</ref> For example, the unrounded equivalent of {{IPA|[ʊ]}} can be transcribed as mid-centered {{IPA|[ɯ̽]}}, and the rounded equivalent of {{IPA|[æ]}} as raised {{IPA|[ɶ̝]}}. True mid vowels are lowered {{IPA|[e̞ ø̞ ɘ̞ ɵ̞ ɤ̞ o̞]}}, while centered {{IPA|[ɪ̈ ʊ̈]}} and {{IPA|[ä]}} are near-close and open central vowels, respectively. The only known vowels that cannot be represented in this scheme are vowels with unexpected [[roundedness]], which would require a dedicated diacritic, such as {{IPA|[ʏ̫]}} or {{IPA|[u͍]}}.
== Symbol names ==
{{Main|Naming conventions of the International Phonetic Alphabet}}
An IPA symbol is often distinguished from the sound it is intended to represent since there is not a one-to-one correspondence between symbol and sound in broad transcription. While the ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association'' states that no official names exist for symbols, it admits the presence of one or two common names for each character that are commonly used.<ref>"...the International Phonetic Association has never officially approved a set of names..." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p. 31)</ref> The symbols also have [[Nonce word|nonce names]] in the [[Unicode]] standard. In some cases, the Unicode names and the IPA names do not agree. For example, IPA calls {{IPA|ɛ}} "epsilon", but Unicode calls it "small letter open E".
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For diacritics, there are two methods of naming. For traditional diacritics, the IPA uses the name of the symbol from a certain language, for example, '''{{IPA|é}}''' is ''[[Acute accent|acute]]'', based on the name of the symbol in English and French. In non-traditional diacritics, the IPA often names a symbol according to an object it resembles, as '''{{IPA|d̪}}''' is called ''bridge''.
== ASCII transliterations, IPA influence on other phonetic alphabets ==
{{See also|Unicode and HTML}}
Since the IPA uses symbols that are outside the [[ASCII]] character set, several systems have been developed that map the IPA symbols to ASCII characters. Notable systems include [[Kirshenbaum]], [[SAMPA]], and [[X-SAMPA]]. The usage of mapping systems in on-line text has to some extent been adopted in the context input methods, allowing convenient keying of IPA characters that would be otherwise unavailable on standard keyboard layouts.
== See also ==
* [[Articulatory phonetics]]
* [[Index of phonetics articles]]
* [[International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration]]
* [[IPA chart for English dialects]]
* [[List of international common standards]]
* [[Phonetic transcription]]
* [[SAMPA]], [[X-SAMPA]] and [[Kirshenbaum]] are other methods of mapping IPA designations into [[ASCII]].
* [[Semyon Novgorodov]] - the inventor of IPA-based [[Sakha writing system|Yakut alphabet]].
* [[TIPA]] provides IPA support for [[LaTeX]].
* [[Unicode Phonetic Symbols]]
== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note}}
== References ==
{{reflist}}
== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin|2}}
* {{cite journal|last=Ball|first=Martin J.|coauthors=John H. Esling & B. Craig. Dickson|year=1995|title=The VoQS system for the transcription of voice quality|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Alphabet|volume=25|issue=2|pages=71–80|doi=10.1017/S0025100300005181}}
* {{cite journal |last=Duckworth |first=M. |coauthors=G. Allen, M.J. Ball |year=1990 |month=December |title=Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for the transcription of atypical speech |journal=Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=273–280 |doi=}}
* {{cite journal |last=Hill |first=Kenneth C. |coauthors= |year=1988 |month=March |title=Review of ''Phonetic symbol guide'' by G. K. Pullum & W. Ladusaw |journal=Language |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=143–144 |doi=10.2307/414792}}
* {{cite journal|author=International Phonetic Association|year=1989|title=Report on the 1989 Kiel convention|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Alphabet|volume=19|issue=2|pages=67–80}}
* {{cite book|author=International Phonetic Association|year=1999|title=Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet|location=Cambridge|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=0-521-65236-7 (hb); ISBN 0-521-63751-1 (pb)}}
* {{cite book |last=Jones |first=Daniel|authorlink=Daniel Jones (phonetician) |title=English pronouncing dictionary |year=1988| edition= revised 14th |publisher=Dent |location=London |oclc=18415701}}
* {{cite journal |last=Ladefoged |first=Peter|authorlink=Peter Ladefoged |year=1990 |month=September |title=The revised International Phonetic Alphabet |journal=Language |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=550–552 |doi=10.2307/414611}}
* {{cite journal |last=Ladefoged |first=Peter |coauthors=Morris Hale |year=1988 |month=September |title=Some major features of the International Phonetic Alphabet |journal=Language |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=577–582 |doi=10.2307/414533}}
* {{cite book|last=Laver|first=John|title=Principles of Phonetics|year=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|isbn=0-521-45031-4 (hb); ISBN 0-521-45655-X (pb)}}
* {{cite book |last=Pullum |first=Geoffrey K. |authorlink=Geoffrey Pullum |coauthors=William A. Laduslaw |title=Phonetic symbol guide |year=1986 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |location=Chicago |isbn=0-226-68532-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Skinner |first=Edith |coauthors=Timothy Monich, and Lilene Mansell |title=Speak with Distinction |location=New York, NY |publisher=Applause Theatre Book Publishers |year=1990}}
{{Refend}}
== External links ==
{{Commons}}
{{Commons category|IPA charts}}
* [http://www.shef.ac.uk/ipa/index.php Video recordings of the sounds of IPA by The University of Sheffield]
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/ipa.htm Information on IPA by Omniglot]
* [http://weston.ruter.net/projects/ipa-chart/view/ IPA Chart] in Unicode and XHTML/CSS
* [http://www.ipa.webstuff.org/ IPA copy & paste charts, keyboards, etc by IPA.Webstuff.org]
* [http://cla.calpoly.edu/~jrubba/phon/learnipa.html Learning the IPA for English], (Standard American English)
* [http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/ The International Phonetic Association web site]
* [http://www.cambridge.org/elt/peterroach/resources.htm Various resources including a glossary] by Peter Roach, Professor of Phonetics, University of Cambridge, UK
* [http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/IPA_chart_(C)2005.pdf The International Phonetic Alphabet (revised to 2005)] Symbols for all languages are shown on this one-page chart
* [http://linguisticmystic.com/2007/03/08/using-ipa-fonts-with-mac-os-x-the-comprehensive-guide/ Using IPA fonts with Mac OS X: The Comprehensive Guide], an article explaining how to install and use freeware fonts and keyboard layouts to type in the International Phonetic Alphabet on OS X
* [http://www.visualthesaurus.com/howitworks/ Visual Thesaurus]
=== Education ===
* [http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~danhall/phonetics/sammy.html Interactive Saggital Section]
* [http://www.uiowa.edu/~acadtech/phonetics/# Phonetics: the Sounds of English and Spanish] Note: requires Flash 7 or higher.
* [http://www.yorku.ca/earmstro/ipa/ IPA Charts with an interactive chart of all IPA symbols with their sounds (Flash)]
=== IPA font downloads ===
* [http://scripts.sil.org/CharisSILfont Charis SIL], a very complete international font (Latin, Greek, Cyrillic) in roman, italic, and [[Emphasis (typography)|bold]] typefaces that includes tone letters and pre-composed tone diacritics on IPA vowels, the new labiodental flap, and many non-standard phonetic symbols. Based on Bitstream Charter, this font suffers from extremely bad hinting when rendered by [[FreeType]] on Linux.
* [[DejaVu fonts]] [http://dejavu.sourceforge.net/wiki/index.php/Download] have full Unicode IPA support.[http://dejavu.svn.sourceforge.net/viewvc/dejavu/trunk/dejavu-fonts/unicover.txt]
* [http://scripts.sil.org/DoulosSILfont Doulos SIL], a Times/Times New Roman style font. It contains the same characters as Charis SIL, but only in a single face, roman.
* [http://scripts.sil.org/FontDownloadsGentium Gentium], a professionally designed international font (Latin, Greek, Cyrillic) in [[Roman type|roman]] and [[italic type]]faces that includes the IPA, but not yet tone letters or the new labiodental flap. For bold typefaces but only the most basic IPA letters, Gentium Basic may be used.
* [http://tug.ctan.org/cgi-bin/ctanPackageInformation.py?id=tipa TIPA], a font and system for entering IPA phonetic transcriptions in [[LaTeX]] documents.
=== Keyboard input ===
* [http://ipa4linguists.pbwiki.com/ Complete Guide]: Beginners’ guide to using IPA on Windows, Mac OS and Linux, covering many office applications and browsers
* [http://www.rejc2.co.uk/ipakeyboard/ Downloadable IPA keyboard layout for Microsoft Windows] for [[Unicode]] IPA input
* [http://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?site_id=nrsi&item_id=ipa-sil_keyboard Downloadable IPA-SIL keyboard layout for Mac OS X] for [[Unicode]] IPA input
* [http://rishida.net/scripts/pickers/ipa/ IPA Character Picker] Web-based input method
* [http://www.blugs.com/IPA/ IPA Palette] is the Mac OS X version of IPACharMap.
* [http://www.davidmontero.net/Linguistics.php IPACharMap (scroll down to see it)] is an on-screen keyboard for point and click character entry, which can then be copied and pasted into a unicode-aware word processor. Based on IPA Palette.
* [http://keymankeyboards.com/?id=454 IPATotal keyboard] - This free UNICODE based keyboard encodes the whole character and diacritics charts of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), designed to represent all the sounds of speech in any language.
* [http://ipatrainer.com/user/ipawriter/ IPA Writer]: The IPA Writer. Online tool to write IPA.
* [http://www.jamesabela.co.uk/beginner/IPA.htm Microsoft Template] - Creates a Toolbar for Microsoft Word. (This uses macros)
* [http://www.linguiste.org/phonetics/ipa/chart/keyboard/ Online keyboard]
* [http://webmasterei.com/en/tools/ipa Online keyboard] with [[MP3]] sound files for IPA symbols
* [http://www.uni-marburg.de/fb09/dsa/mitarbeiter/lueders/applications IPAEdit] Unicode-compliant Transcription Editor for Linux, Mac OS X and Windows from the [[University of Marburg]]
* [http://www.lfsag.unito.it/ipa/editor_en.html PhonPad] online IPA editor.
=== Sound files ===
* [http://hctv.humnet.ucla.edu/departments/linguistics/VowelsandConsonants/vowels/contents.html An introduction to the sounds of languages]
* [http://www.yorku.ca/earmstro/ipa/ Complete IPA chart with sound samples, including English diphthongs]
* [http://web.uvic.ca/ling/resources/ipa/ipa-lab.htm IPA chart] with [[MP3]] sound files for all IPA symbols on the chart (limited version is available to anyone)
* [http://hctv.humnet.ucla.edu/departments/linguistics/VowelsandConsonants/course/chapter1/chapter1.html IPA chart] with [[Audio Interchange File Format|AIFF]] sound files for IPA symbols
* [http://hctv.humnet.ucla.edu/departments/linguistics/VowelsandConsonants/ Peter Ladefoged's Course in Phonetics (with sound files)]
* [http://www.ling.hf.ntnu.no/ipa/full/ Set of IPA sound samples] from the [[Norwegian University of Science and Technology]] including tones, accents, diacritics
=== Unicode charts ===
* [http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/ipa-unicode.htm International Phonetic Alphabet in Unicode]
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0250.pdf Unicode chart for main IPA letters]|246.8 KB}}
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U02B0.pdf Unicode chart for IPA modifier letters]|203 KB}}
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0300.pdf Unicode chart including IPA diacritics]|231.2 KB}}
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.staff.uni-marburg.de/%7Eluedersb/IPA_CHART2005-UNICODE.pdf IPA with Unicode superimposed]|1.6 MB}} from the [[University of Marburg]]
* [http://www.collation-charts.org/mysql60/mysql604.utf8_unicode_ci.phonetic.html MySQL Unicode collation chart for IPA and other phonetic blocks]
* [http://tlt.its.psu.edu/suggestions/international/bylanguage/ipachart.html Unicode-HTML codes for IPA symbols:] Tables of symbol names, [[character entity reference]]s and/or [[numeric character reference]]s at [[Pennsylvania State University|PennState]].
{{Writing systems}}
{{Language phonologies}}
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|colspan="2"|
== Technical note ==
Most IPA symbols are not included in the most widely used form of [[Times Roman|Times New Roman]] (though they are included in the version provided with [[Windows Vista]]), the default font for Latin scripts in [[Internet Explorer]] for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]. To properly view IPA symbols in that browser, you must set it to use a [[List of typefaces|font]] which includes the IPA extensions characters. Such fonts include [[Lucida Sans Unicode]], which comes with [[Windows XP]]; [[Gentium]], [[Charis SIL]], [[Doulos SIL]], [[DejaVu fonts|DejaVu Sans]], or [[Bitstream Cyberbit|TITUS Cyberbit]], which are [[free software Unicode typefaces|freely available]]; or [[Arial Unicode MS]], which comes with [[Microsoft Office]].
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</div>
[[
[[
[[
[[
[[af:Internasionale Fonetiese Alfabet]]
[[als:Internationales Phonetisches Alphabet]]
[[ar:أبجدية صوتية دولية]]
[[arz:ألف-به دوليه صوتيه]]▼
[[frp:Alfabet Fonetico Internacienal]]▼
[[ast:Alfabetu Fonéticu Internacional]]
[[bn:আন্তর্জাতিক ধ্বনিমূলক বর্ণমালা]]▼
[[zh-min-nan:Kok-chè Im-phiau]]▼
[[ba:Халыҡ-ара фонетик әлифба]]
[[bar:Internationals Phonetischs Alphabet]]▼
[[be:Міжнародны фанетычны алфавіт]]
[[be-x-old:Міжнародны фанэтычны альфабэт]]
[[bg:Международна фонетична азбука]]▼
▲[[bar:Internationals Phonetischs Alphabet]]
▲[[bn:আন্তর্জাতিক ধ্বনিমূলক বর্ণমালা]]
[[bo:རྒྱལ་སྤྱིའི་སྒྲ་རྟགས།]]
[[br:Lizherenneg Fonetikel Etrebroadel]]
▲[[bg:Международна фонетична азбука]]
[[ca:Alfabet fonètic internacional]]
[[cv:Пĕтĕм тĕнчери фонетика алфавичĕ]]▼
[[cs:Mezinárodní fonetická abeceda]]
▲[[cv:Пĕтĕм тĕнчери фонетика алфавичĕ]]
[[cy:Gwyddor Seinegol Ryngwladol]]
[[da:Internationale fonetiske alfabet]]
[[de:Internationales Phonetisches Alphabet]]
[[dv:ބައިނަލްއަޤްވާމީ އަޑުބިނާގެ އަލިފުބާ]]
[[et:IPA]]▼
[[el:Διεθνές Φωνητικό Αλφάβητο]]
[[en:International Phonetic Alphabet]]
[[es:Alfabeto Fonético Internacional]]▼
[[eo:Internacia Fonetika Alfabeto]]
▲[[es:Alfabeto Fonético Internacional]]
[[ext:IPA]]▼
▲[[et:IPA]]
[[eu:Nazioarteko Alfabeto Fonetikoa]]
▲[[ext:IPA]]
[[fa:الفبای
[[fi:Kansainvälinen foneettinen aakkosto]]▼
[[fr:Alphabet phonétique international]]
▲[[frp:Alfabet Fonetico Internacienal]]
[[fy:Ynternasjonaal Fonetysk Alfabet]]
[[gan:國際音標]]▼
[[gv:Abbyrlhit Sheeanagh Eddyr-ashoonagh]]▼
[[gd:Aibidil Eadar-nàiseanta Fogharach]]
[[gl:Alfabeto Fonético Internacional]]
▲[[gv:Abbyrlhit Sheeanagh Eddyr-ashoonagh]]
▲[[gan:國際音標]]
[[he:אלפבית פונטי בינלאומי]]▼
[[ko:국제 음성 기호]]▼
[[hy:Միջազգային Հնչյունական Այբուբեն]]▼
[[hi:अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय ध्वन्यात्मक वर्णमाला]]
[[hr:Međunarodna fonetska abeceda]]
[[hu:Nemzetközi fonetikai ábécé]]▼
[[id:Alfabet Fonetis Internasional]]▼
▲[[hy:Միջազգային Հնչյունական Այբուբեն]]
[[ia:Alphabeto Phonetic International]]
▲[[id:Alfabet Fonetis Internasional]]
[[os:Æхсæнадæмон фонетикон алфавит]]▼
[[is:Alþjóðlega hljóðstafrófið]]
[[it:Alfabeto fonetico internazionale]]
[[ja:国際音声記号]]▼
▲[[he:אלפבית פונטי בינלאומי]]
[[jbo:sornai bacru alfabeta]]▼
[[jv:Abjad Fonètik Internasional]]
[[ka:საერთაშორისო ფონეტიკური ანბანი]]
[[kk:IPA]]▼
[[kg:API]]
▲[[kk:IPA]]
▲[[ko:국제 음성 기호]]
[[ksh:Ingernazzjonaal Foneetisch Allfabeet]]▼
[[ku:Alfabeya Fonetîk a Navneteweyî]]
[[lo:ສັດທະອັກສອນສາກົນ]]▼
[[la:Abecedarium Phoneticum Internationale]]
[[lv:Starptautiskais fonētiskais alfabēts]]▼
[[lb:Internationaalt Phonetescht Alphabet]]
[[li:Internationaal Fonetisch Alfabet]]
▲[[jbo:sornai bacru alfabeta]]
[[lmo:Alfabet Funetich Internaziunal]]
▲[[lo:ສັດທະອັກສອນສາກົນ]]
▲[[hu:Nemzetközi fonetikai ábécé]]
▲[[lv:Starptautiskais fonētiskais alfabēts]]
[[mg:Abidy Ara-drafipeo Iraisam-pirenena]]▼
[[mk:Меѓународна фонетска азбука]]
▲[[mg:Abidy Ara-drafipeo Iraisam-pirenena]]
[[mr:आंतरराष्ट्रीय उच्चारानुरूप अक्षर पद्धती]]
▲[[arz:ألف-به دوليه صوتيه]]
[[ms:Abjad Fonetik Antarabangsa]]
[[mwl:Alfabeto Fonético Anternacional]]
[[nl:Internationaal Fonetisch Alfabet]]▼
[[nds-nl:Internasjonaal Klaankenskrift]]
[[ne:अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय ध्वन्यात्मक लिपि]]
▲[[nl:Internationaal Fonetisch Alfabet]]
▲[[ja:国際音声記号]]
[[nn:Det internasjonale fonetiske alfabetet]]▼
[[no:Det internasjonale fonetiske alfabetet]]
▲[[nn:Det internasjonale fonetiske alfabetet]]
[[nrm:API]]
[[oc:Alfabet fonetic internacionau]]
▲[[os:Æхсæнадæмон фонетикон алфавит]]
[[pap:Alfabèt Fonétiko Internashonal]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowy alfabet fonetyczny]]
[[pt:Alfabeto fonético internacional]]
▲[[ksh:Ingernazzjonaal Foneetisch Allfabeet]]
[[ro:Alfabetul Fonetic Internaţional]]
[[ru:Международный фонетический алфавит]]
[[se:Riikkaidgaskasaš fonetihkalaš transkriberenvuogádat]]▼
[[sco:Internaitional Phonetic ABC]]
▲[[se:Riikkaidgaskasaš fonetihkalaš transkriberenvuogádat]]
[[sq:Alfabeti Fonetik Ndërkombëtar]]▼
[[sh:Međunarodna fonetska abeceda]]▼
[[simple:International Phonetic Alphabet]]
[[sk:Medzinárodná fonetická abeceda]]
[[sl:Mednarodna fonetična abeceda]]
▲[[sq:Alfabeti Fonetik Ndërkombëtar]]
[[szl:Mjyndzynorodowe Fůnetyczne Abecadło]]▼
[[sr:Међународни фонетски алфабет]]
▲[[sh:Međunarodna fonetska abeceda]]
[[su:IPA (linguistik)]]
▲[[fi:Kansainvälinen foneettinen aakkosto]]
[[sv:Internationella fonetiska alfabetet]]
▲[[szl:Mjyndzynorodowe Fůnetyczne Abecadło]]
[[ta:அனைத்துலக பலுக்கல் அரிச்சுவடி]]
[[tt:Xalıqara Yañğırış Älifbası]]▼
[[th:สัทอักษรสากล]]▼
[[tg:Алифбои Фонетикии Байналхалқӣ]]
▲[[th:สัทอักษรสากล]]
[[tr:Uluslararası Fonetik Alfabesi]]
▲[[tt:Xalıqara Yañğırış Älifbası]]
[[uk:Міжнародний фонетичний алфавіт]]
[[ur:بین الاقوامی اصواتی ابجدیہ]]
[[vi:Bảng mẫu tự phiên âm quốc tế]]
[[vls:Internationoal Fonetisch Alfabet]]▼
[[vo:Lafab Fonetik Bevünetik]]
[[wa:Alfabet fonetike eternåcionå]]
▲[[vls:Internationoal Fonetisch Alfabet]]
[[zh-yue:萬國音標]]▼
[[zh:國際音標]]
▲[[zh-min-nan:Kok-chè Im-phiau]]
▲[[zh-yue:萬國音標]]
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